Mucin synthesis inhibitors

ABSTRACT

The claimed invention relates to methods of modulating mucin synthesis and the therapeutic application of compounds in controlling mucin over-production associated with diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) including asthma and chronic bronchitis, inflammatory lung diseases, cystic fibrosis and acute or chronic respiratory infectious diseases.

Priority claim: This application claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/480,006 filed Jun. 19, 2003.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to certain analogues and derivatives of anthranilic acid, analogues and derivatives of 2-amino-nicotinic acid, and analogues and derivatives of 2-amino-phenylacetic acid. In particular, the invention relates to their enantiomeric forms, processes for preparing them, pharmaceutical compositions containing them and their use in therapy, in particular, in modulating mucin synthesis and the therapeutic application of these compounds in controlling mucin over-production associated with diseases such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, inflammatory lung diseases, cystic fibrosis, acute or chronic respiratory infectious diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) and chronic gastrointestinal diseases.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The airway epithelium is known to play an integral role in the airway defense mechanism via the mucociliary system and mechanical barriers. Recent studies indicate that airway epithelial cells (AEC) can be activated to produce and release biological mediators important in the pathogenesis of multiple airway disorders (Polito and Proud, 1998; Takizawa, 1998). Evidence has shown that the epithelium is fundamentally disordered in chronic airway disorders such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and cystic fibrosis (Holgate et al., 1999; Jeffery P K, 1991; Salvato, 1968; Glynn and Michaels, 1960).

One of the hallmarks of these airway disorders is the over-production of mucus by AEC. The major macromolecular components of mucus are the large glycoproteins known as mucins. Recently, the molecular structure of at least 7 human mucins was determined. The known mucin transcripts are heterogeneous with no sequence homology between the genes (Voynow and Rose, 1994), yet they are similar in their overall repetitive structure.

Deleterious stimuli are known to activate AEC. These stimuli can vary from antigens in allergic disease to drugs or environmental pollutants, tobacco smoke, and infectious agents associated with forms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AEC activation leads to altered ion transport, changes in ciliary beating, and the increased production and secretion of mucins leading to increased mucus. The mediators produced in response to AEC activation include chemokines that promote the influx of inflammatory cells (Takizawa, 1998). These inflammatory cells can in turn produce mediators that may injure AEC. AEC injury stimulates cellular proliferation (goblet cell and submucosal gland cell hyperplasia) that results in an expanded and continuous source of pro-inflammatory products, including proteases as well as growth factors that drive airway wall remodeling that can lead to lung destruction and the loss of function (Holgate et al., 1999).

The over-production of mucus and alteration of its physiochemical characteristics can contribute to lung pathology in a number of ways. Disruption of physiologic mucociliary clearance by the over-production of mucins can lead to mucus plugging, air trapping, and atelectasis which is often complicated by infection.

Asthma is a chronic obstructive lung disorder that appears to be increasing in prevalence and severity (Gergen and Weiss, 1992). It is estimated that 30-40% of the population suffers with atopic allergy and 15% of children and 5% of adults in the population suffer from asthma (Gergen and Weiss, 1992).

In asthma, activation of the immune system by antigens leads to allergic inflammation. When this type of immune activation occurs it is accompanied by pulmonary inflammation, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, goblet cell and submucosal gland hyperplasia, and mucin over-production and hyper-secretion (Basle et al., 1989) (Paillasse, 1989) (Bosque et al., 1990). Mucus over-production and plugging associated with goblet cell and submucosal gland cell hyperplasia is an important part of the pathology of asthma and has been described on examination of the airways of both mild asthmatics and individuals who have died with status asthmaticus (Earle, 1953) (Cardell and Pearson, 1959) (Dunnill, 1960) (Dunnill et al., 1969) (Aikawa et al., 1992) (Cutz et al., 1978). Certain inflammatory cells are important in this reaction including T cells, antigen presenting cells, B cells that produce IgE, basophils that bind IgE, and eosinophils. These inflammatory cells accumulate at the site of allergic inflammation and the toxic products they release contribute to the destruction of AEC and other tissues related to these disorders.

In the related patent applications mentioned above, applicants have demonstrated that interleukin-9 (IL9), its receptor and activities affected by IL9 are the appropriate targets for therapeutic intervention in atopic allergy, asthma and related disorders. Mediator release from mast cells by allergen has long been considered a critical initiating event in allergy. IL9 was originally identified as a mast cell growth factor and it has been demonstrated that IL9 up-regulates the expression of mast cell proteases including MCP-1, MCP-2, MCP-4 (Eklund et al., 1993) and granzyme B (Louahed et al., 1995). Thus, IL9 appears to serve a role in the proliferation and differentiation of mast cells. Moreover, IL9 up-regulates the expression of the alpha chain of the high affinity IgE receptor (Dugas et al., 1993). Furthermore, both in vitro and in vivo studies have shown IL9 to potentiate the release of IgE from primed B cells (Petit-Frere et al., 1993).

Recently, IL9 was shown to stimulate mucin synthesis and may account for as much as 50-60% of the mucin-stimulating activity of lung fluids in allergic airway disease (Longpre et al., 1999). A gross up-regulation of mucin synthesis and mucus over-production occurs in IL9 transgenic mice as compared to mice from the background strain. IL9 specifically up-regulates the MUC2 and MUC5AC genes and proteins in vitro and in vivo (Louahed et al.,. 2000). Moreover, IL9 neutralizing antibody inhibits completely the up-regulation of mucins in response to antigen challenge in animal models of asthma (McLane et al., 2000).

Current asthma treatments suffer from a number of disadvantages. The main therapeutic agents, beta-receptor agonists, reduce the symptoms thereby transiently improving pulmonary function, but do not affect the underlying inflammation nor do they suppress mucin production. In addition, constant use of beta-receptor agonists results in desensitization, which reduces their efficacy and safety (Molinoff et al., 1995). The agents that can diminish the underlying inflammation, and thereby decrease mucin production, such as anti-inflammatory steroids, have their own list of disadvantages that range from immunosuppression to bone loss (Molinoff et al., 1995).

Chronic bronchitis is another form of chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder. Nearly 5% of adults suffer with this pulmonary disorder. Chronic bronchitis is defined as the chronic over-production of sputum. Mucus over-production is generally associated with inflammation of the conducting airways. The mediators of inflammatory cells including neutrophils and macrophages may be associated with increased mucin gene expression in this disorder (Voynow et al., 1999; Borchers et al., 1999). The increased production of mucus is associated with airway obstruction, which is one of the cardinal features of this pulmonary disorder. Therapy is largely symptomatic and focused on controlling infection and preventing further loss of lung function. Decongestants, expectorants and combinations of these agents that are often used to treat the symptoms of bronchitis are not thought to alter mucin production. Mucolytics may promote mucociliary clearance and provide symptomatic relief by reducing the viscosity and/or the elasticity of the airway secretions but do not inhibit mucin synthesis or mucus over-production. (Takahashi et al., 1998).

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is yet another disease that affects the airways and gastrointestinal system and is associated with thick secretions resulting in airway obstruction and subsequent colonization and infection by inhaled pathogenic microorganisms (Eng et al., 1996). DNA levels are increased significantly in CF lung and can increase the viscosity of sputum. While recombinant aerosolized DNAse is of value in these patients, there is no effective treatment for the pathologic mucus over-production. Thus, there is a specific unmet need in the art for the identification of agents capable of inhibiting mucin over-production by airway epithelial cells in CF. In addition to the airway obstruction caused by mucin secretions, CF patients also suffer from mucus plugging in the pancreatic ducts which prevent the delivery of digestive enzymes to the GI tract. The result is malabsorption syndrome, steatorrhea and diarrhea.

Chronic non-allergic sinusitis is frequently accompanied by quantitative and qualitative changes in mucous production that contribute to the disease. These changes include hypersecretion of gel forming mucins such as MUC2, MUC5A/C and MUC5B. In addition, patients with chronic sinusitis frequently complain of mucoid or mucopurulent rhinorrhea. Recent research suggests that the hypersecretion involved in chronic sinusitis may be a result of locally increased mucin synthesis (Shinogi et al., Laryngoscope 111(2):240-245, 2001).

While mucus over-production is one of the hallmarks of multiple chronic obstructive lung disorders, the art lacks any methods to block the synthesis or over-production of mucins associated with these pulmonary disorders. Thus, there is a specific need in the art to inhibit the over-production of mucins and thin the secretions of these patients to promote mucociliary clearance and preserve lung function.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The following patents and patent applications are incorporated by reference in their entirety: U.S. application Ser. No. 09/951,906, filed Sep. 14, 2001; U.S. application Ser. No. 09/920,287, filed Aug. 2, 2001; U.S. application Ser. No. 09/918,711, filed Aug. 1, 2001; U.S. application Ser. No. 09/774,243, filed Jan. 31, 2001; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/179,127, filed on Jan. 31, 2000; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/193,111, filed on Mar. 30, 2000; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/230,783, filed Sep. 7, 2000; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/242,134, filed Oct. 23, 2000; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/252,052 filed Nov. 20, 2000; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/702,110, filed on Aug. 23, 1996 and issued on Mar. 14, 2000 as U.S. Pat. No. 6,037,149; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/325,571, filed on Jun. 9, 1999; U.S. Pat. No. 5,908,839 issued Jun. 1, 1999; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/980,872, filed Dec. 1, 1997.

An aspect of the current invention relates to a compound selected from the group consisting of the enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs.

An aspect of the invention also relates to a method of treating a subject with a disease state associated with the synthesis or secretion of mucin, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs.

In one embodiment, the mucin production is chloride channel dependent. Preferably, the chloride channel is calcium activated and is a CLCA chloride channel.

In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition is administered by inhalation. In a preferred embodiment, the composition is in the form of a liquid which may be aerosolized, or a powder.

In one embodiment, the method of treating a subject with a disease state associated with the synthesis or secretion of mucin composition comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs, further comprises at least one additional therapeutic agent. Preferred therapeutic agents include an expectorant, mucolytic agent, antibiotic and decongestant agent. In a preferred embodiment, the expectorant is guaifenesin.

In another aspect of the invention, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises at least one excipient selected from the group consisting of a surfactant, stabilizing agent, absorption-enhancing agent, flavoring agent and pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In a preferred embodiment, the stabilizing agent is cyclodextran and the absorption-enhancing agent is chitosan.

In another aspect of the invention, the disease state is selected from the group consisting of a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), an inflammatory lung disease, cystic fibrosis and an infectious disease. In a preferred embodiment, the COPD is selected from the group consisting of emphysema, chronic bronchitis and asthma.

In another aspect of the invention, the pharmaceutical composition formulated for inhalation delivery to the lungs comprises enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs in an amount effective to decrease mucin synthesis or secretion. In a preferred embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises (+)-talniflumate, a (+)-talniflumate derivative, a salt thereof or a prodrug thereof. In a preferred embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises at least one expectorant, mucolytic agent, antibiotic or decongestant agent.

Another aspect of the invention relates to an inhalation device comprising a pharmaceutical composition comprising enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs.

In another aspect of the invention, the pharmaceutical composition comprising enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs is formulated to increase bioavailability. In a preferred embodiment, the composition is micronized.

Another aspect of the invention relates to a method of treating a subject with chronic sinusitis, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows the effect of NFA on mucin production. NFA inhibitor blocks mucin overproduction in vitro.

FIG. 2 shows the ability of NFA and various compounds to suppress the over-production of mucin by activated Caco2 cells. This figure shows the inhibition of mucin production in activated Caco2 cells by fenamates.

FIG. 3 shows that treatment of the activated Caco2 cell line with NFA did not effect their viability. This figure shows that NFA does not effect epithelial cell proliferation.

FIG. 4 shows the inhibition of epithelial cell production of the chemokine eotaxin. This figure shows that NFA blocks epithelial activation including chemokine production.

FIG. 5 shows that intra-tracheal administration of NFA suppresses antigen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness (Af+NFA) compared to phosphate buffered saline (PBS). This figure shows that NFA blocks epithelial antigen responses including airway hyperresponsiveness.

FIG. 6 shows the results of intra-tracheal administration of NFA. This figure shows that NFA reduces antigen-induced lung eosinophilia in vivo. This is seen by comparing eosinophilia after activation with Aspergillus in the presence of NFA (Af+NFA) to eosinophilia after activation in the absence of NFA phosphate buffered saline (Af+PBS).

FIG. 7 shows the results of intra-tracheal administration of NFA on antigen-induced increases in mucus (mucin glyco-conjugates) (Af+NFA) compared to phosphate buffered saline (PBS). This figure shows NFA blocks increased mucin expression due to antigen in the lungs of exposed mouse.

FIG. 8 shows that IL9 transgenic mice constitutively over-produce mucin in the airway in contrast to control FVB mice.

FIG. 9 shows the constitutive over-production of mucin in the lung of IL9 transgenic mice is associated with the specific up-regulation of MUC2 and MUC5AC steady-state transcripts compared to the background strain (FVB/NJ) of mice. This figure shows that specific mucin genes are up-regulated in the lungs of IL-9 transgenic mice.

FIG. 10 shows the effect of anti-IL-9 antibody on mucin over-production in the lung of antigen-exposed mice. This figure shows neutralizing IL-9 antibody prevents mucin over-production in antigen-exposed mice.

FIG. 11 shows a generic formula I for compounds that block mucin production wherein:

-   -   X₁ to X₉ are independently selected from the group consisting of         C, S, O and N;     -   R₁ to R₁₁ are each independently selected from the group         consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, trifluoromethyl,         substituted alkyl, substituted aryl, halogen, halogen         substituted alkyl, halogen substituted aryl, cycloalkyl,         hydroxyl, alkyl ether, aryl ether, amine, alkyl amine, aryl         amine, alkyl ester, aryl ester, alkyl sulfonamide, aryl         sulfonamide, thiol, alkyl thioether, aryl thioether, alkyl         sulfone, aryl sulfone, alkyl sulfoxide, aryl sulfoxide or         sulfonamide;     -   R₁ and R₂ or R₂ and R₃ or R₃ and R₄ or R₄ and R₅ or R₆ and R₇ or         R₇ and R₈ or R₈ and R₉, together with the atoms to which they         are attached form a cycloalkyl ring, an aryl ring or a         heteroaryl ring;     -   Y is a substituent selected from the group consisting of C(O)R         (wherein R is a substitutent selected from the group consisting         of aryl, phosphonate, styryl, and 3H-isobenzofuran-1-one-3-oxyl         and 3H-isobenzofuran-1-one-3-yl), hydrogen, carboxylate, alkyl         carboxylate, sulfate, sulfonate, phosphate, phosphonate, amides         of carboxylic acids, esters of carboxylic acids, amides of         phosphoric acids, esters of phosphoric acids, amides of sulfonic         acids, esters of sulfonic acids, amides of phosphonic acids,         esters of phosphonic acids, sulfonamide, phosphonamide,         tetrazole and hydroxamic acid;     -   R₁₁ and Y may form a cyclic sulfonamide;     -   Z is selected from the group consisting of O, N, S C, sulfoxide         and sulfone, it being understood that when the atom is S,         sulfoxide or sulfone, the groups R₁₀ and R₁₁ are not present and         when the atom is N, only R₁₀ is present;     -   m is 0 or 1; and

-   n is 1 or 2,     wherein said compound of formula I decreases mucin synthesis or     mucin levels in the subject.

FIG. 12 shows mucin expression induced by hCLCA1 in NCI-H292 cells.

FIG. 13 shows mucus over-production in NCI-H292 cells over-expressing hCLCA1.

FIG. 14 shows the inhibition of mucin production by talniflumate.

FIGS. 15 A & B show the inhibition of mucin over production by oral administration if talniflumate in mice. FIG. 15A shows a section of lung (stained with H&E) from a mouse sensitized to Aspergillus fumigatus and allowed access to regular mouse chow. FIG. 15B shows a section of lung (stained with H&E) from a mouse sensitized with Aspergillus fumigatus and allowed access to talniflumate-containing mouse chow.

FIG. 16 shows the inhibition of lung eosinophilia by oral administration if talniflumate in mice. This figure shows AHR373: the effect of talniflumate mouse chow on BAL of B6D2F1/J male mice sensitized with Aspergillus fumigatus.

FIG. 17 shows the inhibition of MUCSA/C secretion by Nimesulide.

FIG. 18 shows the inhibition of MUCSA/C secretion by MSI-2079.

FIG. 19 shows the structure of MSI-2079.

FIG. 20 shows the effect of talniflumate on CF mice.

FIG. 21 shows the structures of MSI 2214-2217.

FIG. 22 shows the effect of talniflumate on the lipoteichoic acid dependent induction of MUC2.

FIG. 23 is a graph of chloride current as a function of voltage in cells expressing hCLCA1

FIG. 24 is a chromatogram identifying for the first time the two enantiomers of talniflumate.

FIG. 25 shows the talniflumate enantiomers.

FIG. 26 shows the effect of the talniflumate enantiomers in the ELLA for MUC5AC.

FIG. 27 shows the effect of the talniflumate enantiomers in the Alamar Blue Assay.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is, in part, derived from the finding that mucus over-production resulting from activation of nonciliated epithelial cells of the lung is caused by induction of mucin genes including MUC2 and MUC5AC. Thus, one aspect of the invention is the inhibition of epithelial cell activation. This inhibition of epithelial cell activation down-regulates chemokine production, bronchial responsiveness, and mucin gene expression and as a result offers chemoprotection. Molecules that decrease or inhibit epithelial activation and thereby downregulate noxious stimulation of inflammation and mucin synthesis or mucin levels are therefore, part of the present invention.

Agents that Decrease Mucin Synthesis or Levels

As described herein, the formulations and compositions of the invention include agents that decrease mucin synthesis or levels, or decrease in some way the over-production of mucin. As used herein, “decrease” is defined as a down-regulation in the level, activation, function, stability, or synthesis of mucin. Preferred agents decrease the chloride channel dependent level, activation, function, stability, or synthesis of mucin. As used herein, “chloride channel” refers to, but is not limited to, the ICACC chloride channel and the related channels referred to in WO 99/44620, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Agents that fall under these definitions may be identified or their activity verified by screening in the assays described in the Examples. For instance, the in vitro and in vivo assays described in Examples 7 and 8 may be used to screen, identify or verify an agent's activity.

Compounds of the preferred embodiments of the present invention that decrease mucin synthesis or mucin levels are compounds of the formula I:

wherein:

-   -   X₁ to X₉ are independently selected from the group consisting of         C, S, O and N;     -   R₁ to R₁₁ are each independently selected from the group         consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, trifluoromethyl,         substituted alkyl, substituted aryl, halogen, halogen         substituted alkyl, halogen substituted aryl, cycloalkyl,         hydroxyl, alkyl ether, aryl ether, amine, alkyl amine, aryl         amine, alkyl ester, aryl ester, alkyl sulfonamide, aryl         sulfonamide, thiol, alkyl thioether, aryl thioether, alkyl         sulfone, aryl sulfone, alkyl sulfoxide, aryl sulfoxide and         sulfonamide;     -   R₁ and R₂ or R₂ and R₃ or R₃ and R₄ or R₄ and R₅ or R₆ and R₇ or         R₇ and R₈ or R₈ and R₉, together with the atoms to which they         are attached form a cycloalkyl ring, an aryl ring or a         heteroaryl ring;     -   Y is a substituent selected from the group consisting of C(O)R         (wherein R is a substitutent selected from the group consisting         of aryl, phosphonate, styryl, and 3H-isobenzofuran-1-one-3-oxyl         and 3H-isobenzofuran-1-one-3-yl), hydrogen, carboxylate, alkyl         carboxylate, sulfate, sulfonate, phosphate, phosphonate, amides         of carboxylic acids, esters of carboxylic acids, amides of         phosphoric acids, esters of phosphoric acids, amides of sulfonic         acids, esters of sulfonic acids, amides of phosphonic acids,         esters of phosphonic acids, sulfonamide, phosphonamide,         tetrazole and hydroxamic acid;     -   R₁₁ and Y may form a cyclic sulfonamide;     -   Z is an atom selected from the group consisting of O, N, S, C,         sulfoxide and sulfone, it being understood that when the atom is         S, sulfoxide or sulfone, the groups R₁₀ and R₁₁ are not present         and when the atom is N, only R₁₀ is present;     -   m is 0 or 1; and     -   n is 1 or 2,         wherein said compound of formula I decreases mucin synthesis or         mucin levels in the subject.

In a preferred embodiment, Y is C(O)R (wherein R is a substitutent selected from the group consisting of aryl, phosphonate, styryl, and 3H-isobenzofuran-1-one-3-oxyl and 3H-isobenzofuran-1-one-3-yl) or carboxylate, R₁ to R₁₁ are trifluoromethyl or alkyl and X₆ is C or N.

In another preferred embodiment, n=2, one Z is NR₁₀ and the other Z group is CR₁₀R₁₁ wherein R₁₀ is H and R₁₁ is an amine group and Y is sulfone such that Y and R₁₁ form a cyclic sulfonamide.

In a preferred embodiment, compounds of the formula I that decrease mucin synthesis or levels include analogues and derivatives of anthranilic acid (2-aminobenzoic acid). In some preferred embodiments, the molecule may be an N-derivatized anthranilic acid. In some embodiments, the amino group of anthranilic acid may be modified with one or more groups. In some embodiments, the group may be an aromatic group. In a preferred embodiment, the group may be a trifluoromethyl-phenyl group preferably a 3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl group and the molecule that decreases mucin synthesis or levels is flufenamic acid. In another preferred embodiment, the amino group may be derivatized with a 2,3-dimethyl-phenyl group and the molecule that decreases mucin synthesis or levels is mefenamic acid.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate that other phenyl derivatives of anthranilic acid may be used in the present invention. In other preferred embodiments, the benzoic acid ring may include one or more substituents. In a preferred embodiment, both the benzoic acid ring and the amino group may be modified. Other preferred embodiments, include molecules having substituents on the benzoic acid ring and aromatic groups attached to the amino group.

In some embodiments, the compounds of formula I that decrease mucin synthesis include analogues and derivatives of 2-amino-nicotinic acid. In some embodiments the exocyclic amino group may be modified to include one or more groups. In some preferred embodiments, the exocyclic amine group may be modified with an aromatic group. Suitable aromatic groups include, but are not limited to, a phenyl group, a modified phenyl group, a benzyl group, a modified benzyl group and the like. In a preferred embodiment, the aromatic group may be a 3-trifluoromethyl-phenyl group and the derivative of 2-amino-nicotinic acid is niflumic acid.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula I that decreases mucin synthesis may be an analogue or derivative of 2-amino-phenylacetic acid. In some embodiments, the amino group may be modified to include one or more groups. In some embodiments, the amino group may be modified with an aromatic group. Suitable aromatic groups include, but are not limited to, a phenyl group, a modified phenyl group, a benzyl group, a modified benzyl group and the like. In a preferred embodiment, the 2-amino-phenylacetic acid is N-modified with a 2,6-dichlorophenyl group and the molecule that decreases mucin synthesis or levels is talniflumate. In another preferred embodiment, the two enantiomeric forms of talniflumate are used to regulate epithelial activation, epithelial inflammation and mucin synthesis.

Salts, solvates, and suspensions of talniflumate and its enantiomeric forms are included in this embodiment. In some embodiments, each enantiomer will be substantially free of the other form, or may be combined in a mixture. Preferably, a specific enantiomer of the invention will contain less than 10%, e.g., less than 5%, and in certain cases where a specific effect is desired, less than 1% of its opposite enantiomer. In other embodiments, an equal mixture of the (+) and (−) enantiomer is combined for epithelial anti-inflammatory and mucin synthesis regulation where the mixture contains equal amounts of each enantiomer, less than 50% of one enantiomer and a proportionately higher amount of the opposite enantiomer depending on the desired effects of each enantiomer.

Talniflumate possesses a chiral center at the number 8 carbon as shown and therefore the potential for isolating two stereoisomers exists. It will also be appreciated that an enantiomer according to the present invention, for example the (+)-enantiomer of talniflumate, may also be useful in a form substantially free of the corresponding (−)-enantiomer, and vice versa, or as a mixture where each enantiomer provides a specified anti-inflammatory and/or mucin regulatory activity on activated epithelial cells in the airways or gastrointestinal system.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula I that decreases mucin synthesis or levels may be bendroflumethiazide.

One aspect of the present invention relates to new chemical entities having the structure of Formula II:

wherein:

-   -   X is S, N, O or CR;     -   Y is CRR′, O, NR₆, CRR′-CRR′ or CR═CR;     -   Z is NR₆, O, S, CRR′ or CRR′-CRR′;     -   R₁-R₃ are independently selected from the group consisting of H,         C₁-C₈ alkyl, C₁-C₈ alkoxy, amino, hydroxy, halosubstituted alkyl         and halo;     -   R₄ is     -   Q is CR, NR₆ or     -   R₅ is H or benzyl;     -   R₆ is H, C₁-C₈ alkyl, C₁-C₈ alkoxy, OH or halo; and     -   R and R′ are independently H, C₁-C₈ alkyl, C₁-C₈ alkoxy, OH or         halo.

The compounds of Formula II are useful in methods of treating disease characterized by the production of mucin. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the compounds of Formula II are also contemplated. Methods of treating a subject with a disease selected from the group consisting of chronic sinusitis, asthma, chronic bronchitis, inflammatory lung diseases, cystic fibrosis and acute or chronic respiratory infectious diseases and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of a compound of Formula II are also contemplated by the present invention.

The present invention also contemplates the use of prodrugs of one or more of the above-mentioned molecules that decrease mucin synthesis or levels. As defined herein, a prodrug is a molecule that is administered in a form other than that described above and is converted in the body of the subject into the form described. Preferred prodrugs include, but are not limited to, prodrugs of fenamates. Some preferred prodrugs are esters of the acid form of the molecule that decreases mucin synthesis or levels. Preferred esters include, but are not limited to, esters of NFA, for example, the beta-morpholinoethyl ester, morniflumate, and the phthalidyl ester, talniflumate.

Definitions

“Alkyl” refers to a saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon including straight chain, branched chain or cyclic groups. Preferably, the alkyl group has 1 to 20 carbon atoms (whenever a numerical range; e.g., “1-20”, is stated herein, it means that the group, in this case the alkyl group, may contain 1 carbon atom, 2 carbon atoms, 3 carbon atoms, etc. up to and including 20 carbon atoms). More preferably, it is a medium size alkyl having 1 to 10 carbon atoms. Most preferably, it is a lower alkyl having 1 to 4 carbon atoms. The alkyl group may be substituted or unsubstituted. When substituted, each substituent group is preferably one or more individually selected from halogen, hydroxy and phosphonate.

A “styryl” group refers to the group —CH═CH-aryl.

A “trifluoromethyl” group refers to the group —CF₃.

An “aryl” group refers to an all-carbon monocyclic or fused-ring polycyclic (i.e., rings which share adjacent pairs of carbon atoms) groups having a completely conjugated pi-electron system. Examples, without limitation, of aryl groups are phenyl, naphthalenyl and anthracenyl. The aryl group may be substituted or unsubstituted. When substituted, each substituted group is preferably one or more selected from halogen, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy and alkyl ester.

A “halogen” group refers to fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.

A “cycloalkyl” group refers to an all-carbon monocyclic or fused ring (i.e., rings which share an adjacent pair of carbon atoms) group wherein one of more of the rings does not have a completely conjugated pi-electron system. Examples, without limitation, of cycloalkyl groups are cyclopropane, cyclobutane, cyclopentane, cyclopentene, cyclohexane, adamantane, cyclohexadiene, cycloheptane and, cycloheptatriene. A cycloalkyl group may be substituted or unsubstituted. When substituted, each substituent group is preferably one or more individually selected from halogen and hydroxy.

As used herein, a “heteroaryl” group refers to a monocyclic or fused ring (i.e., rings which share an adjacent pair of atoms) group having in the ring(s) one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur and, in addition, having a completely conjugated pi-electron system. Examples, without limitation, of heteroaryl groups are pyrrole, furan, thiophene, imidazole, oxazole, thiazole, pyrazole, pyridine, pyrimidine, quinoline, isoquinoline, purine and carbazole. The heteroaryl group may be substituted or unsubstituted. When substituted, each substituted group is preferably one or more selected from halogen and hydroxy.

A “hydroxyl” group is —OH.

An “alkyl ether” group is an —O-alkyl group, wherein the term “alkyl” is defined above.

An “aryl ether” group or an “aryloxy” group is an —O-aryl group wherein the term “aryl” is defined above.

An “amine” group is an —NH2 group or an —NH— group.

An “alkyl amine” group is an —NHalkyl group, wherein the term “alkyl” is defined above.

An “aryl amine” group is an —NHaryl, wherein the term “aryl” is defined above.

An “alkyl ester” group is a —C(O)Oalkyl, wherein the term “alkyl” is defined above.

An “aryl ester” group is a —C(O)Oaryl, wherein the term “aryl” is defined above.

An “alkyl sulfonamide” group is a —SO₂NHalkyl, wherein the term “alkyl” is defined above.

An “aryl sulfonamide” group is a —SO₂NHaryl, wherein the term “aryl” is defined above.

A “thiol” group is an —SH group.

An “alkyl thioether” group is an —S-alkyl group, wherein the term “alkyl” is defined above.

An “aryl thio ether” group or an “arylthio” group is an —S-aryl group, wherein the term “aryl” is defined above.

A “sulfoxide” group is an —SO— group.

A “sulfone” group is an —SO₂— group.

An “alkyl sulfone” group is a —SO₂alkyl, wherein the term “alkyl” is defined above.

An “aryl sulfone” group is a —SO₂aryl, wherein the term “aryl” is defined above.

An “alkyl sulfoxide” group is a —S(O)alkyl, wherein the term “alkyl” is defined above.

An “aryl sulfoxide” group is a —S(O)aryl, wherein the term “aryl” is defined above.

A “carboxylate” group is a —CO₂H group.

An “alkyl carboxylate” group is an -alkyl-CO₂H.

A “sulfate” group is an —OSO₃ group.

A “sulfonate” group is an —SO(OR)₂ group.

A “phosphate” group is an —OPO₃ group.

A “phosphonate” group is an —P(O)(OR)₂ group, wherein R is H, alkyl or aryl.

An “amide of a carboxylic acid” group is a —CO₂NR′R″ group, wherein R′ and R″ are independently H, alkyl or aryl.

An “ester of a carboxylic acid” group is a —CO₂R′ group, wherein R′ is alkyl or aryl.

An “amide of a phosphoric acid” group is a —OPO₂NR′R″ group, wherein R′ and R″ are independently H, alkyl or aryl.

An “ester of a phosphoric acid” group is a —OPO₂OR′ group, wherein R′ is alkyl or aryl.

An “amide of a sulfonic acid” group is a —OSO₂NR′R″ group, wherein R′ and R″ are independently H, alkyl or aryl

An “ester of a sulfonic acid” group is a —OSO₂OR′ group, wherein R′ is alkyl or aryl.

An “amide of a phosphonic acid” group is an —PO₂NR′R″ group, wherein R′ and R″ are independently H, alkyl or aryl.

An “ester of a phosphonic acid” group is an —PO₂OR′ group, wherein R′ is H, alkyl or aryl.

A “sulfonamide” group is an —SO₂NR′R″ group wherein R′ and R″ are independently H, alkyl or aryl.

A “phosphonamide” group is a —NR′-PO₃H.

A “hydroxamic acid” group is a —C(O)NHOH group.

Specific Chemical Compounds Useful as Mucin Inhibitors

The following compounds have been prepared and have been determined to have activity as inhibitors of mucin synthesis.

Uses for Agents that Modulate the Production of Mucin

As provided in the Examples, agents that modulate, decrease or down-regulate the expression of mucin may be used to modulate biological and pathologic processes associated with mucin production.

Applicants have observed that IL9 selectively induces the expression of mucin gene products. Thus, the pleiotropic role for IL9, which is important to a number of antigen-induced responses, is dependent in part, on the up-regulation of mucin in AEC. When the functions of IL9 are down-regulated by neutralizing antibody treatment, animals can be completely protected from antigen-induced responses in the lung. These responses include: bronchial hyperresponsiveness, eosinophilia and elevated cell counts in bronchial lavage, elevated serum IgE, histologic changes in lung associated with inflammation, and goblet cell and submucosal gland cell hyperplasia associated with the over-production of mucus. The down-regulation of IL9 and asthmatic-like responses is associated with the down-regulated expression of mucin (FIG. 10). Thus, treatment of such responses, which underlie the pathogenesis of asthma and characterize allergic inflammation associated with this disorder, by down-regulating mucin production, is within the scope of this invention.

Histologic analysis of IL9 transgenic mice airways has shown mucin over-production in nonciliated epithelial cells (Temann et al., 1998; Louahed et al., 2000). Induction of mucin in the IL9 transgenic mouse lung suggests that IL9 promotes mucus production by these cells (see FIG. 8). Activated Caco2 cells that express the mRNA of MUC1, MUC2, MUC3, MUC4, MUC5B and MUC5AC have been produced and used to test for inhibitors of mucin production. These cells can be stained for mucin using Periodic Acid-Schiff staining (PAS). As shown in FIG. 1A, the untreated activated Caco2 cells stain intensely for PAS positive mucin glycoconjugates. Control and activated cells were cultured in the presence of niflumic acid (NFA) or 4,4′-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid (DIDS). PAS staining of inhibitor treated activated cells revealed significantly fewer positive staining glycoconjugates as compared with the untreated cells (FIG. 1D as compared to 1B).

While a therapeutic potential for mucin down-regulation has been identified in asthma, Applicants have also recognized a therapeutic potential for down-regulation of mucin in cystic fibrosis. Patients with cystic fibrosis are hampered by lung disease characterized by thick secretions, which cause airway obstruction and subsequent colonization and infection by inhaled pathogenic microorganisms (Eng et al., 1996). Applicants therefore provide a method for treating cystic fibrosis by down regulating mucin production in the lung.

Mucin over production in cystic fibrosis is also present in the pancreatic ducts that deliver digestive enzymes to the GI tract resulting in malabsorption syndrome, steatorrhea and diarrhea. Applicants therefore also provide a method for treating cystic fibrosis by down regulating mucin production in the pancreas.

Applicants have also identified a therapeutic potential for mucin down-regulation in chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Patients with chronic bronchitis and emphysema are hampered by lung disease characterized by thick secretions, which cause airway obstruction and subsequent colonization and infection by inhaled pathogenic microorganisms (Eng et al., 1996). Applicants therefore provide a method for treating chronic bronchitis and emphysema by down regulating mucin production in the lung.

As used herein, a subject can be any mammal, so long as the mammal is in need of modulation of a pathological or biological process mediated by mucin production. The term “mammal” is meant as an individual belonging to the class Mammalia. The invention is particularly useful in the treatment of human subjects.

Pathological processes refer to a category of biological processes that produce a deleterious effect. For example, mucin over-production of the invention may be associated with respiratory disease, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), inflammatory lung disease, cystic fibrosis and an acute or chronic infectious disease. COPD includes, but is not limited to bronchitis, asthma and emphysema. Mucin over-production may also be associated with gastrointestinal diseases such as hepatic failure due to biliary stasis, intestinal obstruction, malabsorption syndrome, steatorrhea and diarrhea that are present in cystic fibrosis and other disorders.

As used herein, an agent is said to modulate a pathological process when the agent reduces the degree or severity of the process. For instance, airway obstruction may be prevented or disease progression modulated by the administration of agents that reduce or modulate in some way the synthesis, levels and/or over-production of mucin.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

The agents of the present invention can be provided alone, or in combination with other therapeutic agents that modulate a particular pathological process. For example, an agent of the present invention can be administered in combination with anti-asthma agents. In another embodiment, an agent may be administered in combination with expectorants, mucolytics, antibiotics, antihistamines or decongestants. In still another embodiment, an agent may be administered along with a surfactant, a stabilizing agent, an absorption-enhancing agent, a beta adrenoreceptor or purine receptor agonist or a flavoring or other agent that increases the palatability of the compositions. As an example, compositions of the invention may contain, in addition to the active agent, excipients such as an expectorant such as guaifenesin, a stabilizing agent such as cyclodextran and/or an absorption-enhancing agent such as chitosan. Any such agents may be used in the therapeutic compositions of the invention.

As used herein, two or more agents are said to be administered in combination when the agents are administered simultaneously or are administered independently in a fashion such that the agents will act at the same time.

The compounds used in the method of treatment of this invention may be administered systemically or topically, depending on such considerations as the condition to be treated, need for site-specific treatment, quantity of drug to be administered and similar considerations. For instance, the agents of the present invention can be administered via parenteral, subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, transdermal, topical, or buccal routes. Alternatively, or concurrently, administration may be by the oral or nasal route or directly to the lungs. In a preferred embodiment, the compounds of this invention may be administered by inhalation. For inhalation therapy the compound may be in a solution useful for administration by liquid aerosol, metered dose inhalers, or in a form suitable for a dry powder inhaler. The dosage administered will be dependent upon the age, health, and weight of the recipient, kind of concurrent treatment, if any, frequency of treatment, and the nature of the effect desired.

In some preferred embodiments, the agents of the present invention may be formulated as aerosols. The formulation of pharmaceutical aerosols is routine to those skilled in the art (see for example, Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 20^(th) Edition, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa.). The agents may be formulated as solution aerosols, dispersion or suspension aerosols of dry powders, emulsions or semisolid preparations. The aerosol may be delivered using any propellant system known to those skilled in the art. The aerosols may be applied to the upper respiratory tract, for example by nasal inhalation, or to the lower respiratory tract or to both.

In other preferred embodiments of the invention, the therapeutic agents may be formulated into particulates or micronized to improve bioavailability and digestive absorption. In particular, talniflumate may be formulated and micronized using standard techniques in the art, including the methods discussed by Chaumeil, J. C. et al., Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 20(3): 211-215 (1998). In this process, the grinding of talniflumate or other agents of the invention may be carried out in ball or hammer mills of the customary type. These procedures can also be carried out by micronization in gaseous jet micronizers that have the advantage of not heating the substances to be micronized.

In other embodiments, any common topical formulation such as a solution, suspension, gel, ointment or salve and the like may be employed. Preparation of such topical formulations are well described in the art of pharmaceutical formulations as exemplified by Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences. For topical application, these compounds could also be administered as a powder or spray, particularly in aerosol form.

The active ingredient may be administered in pharmaceutical compositions adapted for systemic administration. As is known, if a drug is to be administered systemically, it may be confected as a powder, pill, tablet, capsule, or the like or as a syrup or elixir for oral administration. For intravenous, intra-peritoneal or intra-lesional administration, the compound will be prepared as a solution or suspension capable of being administered by injection. In certain cases, it may be useful to formulate these compounds in suppository form or as an extended release formulation for deposit under the skin or intramuscular injection.

An effective amount of a composition or agent contained therein is that amount that will reduce, decrease or down-regulate mucin activation, function, stability, or synthesis. Preferred compositions or agents reduce, decrease or down-regulate chloride channel dependent mucin activation, function, stability, or synthesis, including ICACC chloride channel dependent mucin activation, function, stability, or synthesis. A given effective amount will vary from condition to condition and in certain instances may vary with the severity of the condition being treated and the patient's susceptibility to treatment. Accordingly, a given effective amount will be best determined at the time and place through routine experimentation. It is anticipated, however, that in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders in accordance with the present invention, a formulation containing between 0.001 and 5 percent by weight, preferably about 0.01 to 1%, will usually constitute a therapeutically effective amount. When administered systemically, an amount between 0.01 and 100 mg per kg body weight per day, but preferably about 0.1 to 10 mg/kg/day, will effect a therapeutic result in most instances.

When administered via inhalation, an amount between 0.01 and 100 mg per kg body weight per day, but preferably about 0.10 to 10 mg/kg/day, will effect a therapeutic result in most instances. In some instances, a metered dose aerosol unit contains about 0.8 mg of a compound of the present invention, for instance, talniflumate. At this formulation, the maintenance dose for an adult is about 2 inhalations (about 1.6 mg) twice daily (about 3.2 mg).

The invention also includes pharmaceutical compositions comprising the compounds of the invention together with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can be sterile liquids, such as water and oils, including those of petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic origin, such as peanut oil, soybean oil, mineral oil, sesame oil and the like. Water is a preferred carrier when the pharmaceutical composition is administered intravenously or by inhalation. Saline or phosphate buffered saline can also be employed as carriers, particularly for inhalation by aerosols. Lactated saline solutions and aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions can also be employed as liquid carriers, particularly for injectable solutions. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers are described in The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 20^(th) Edition, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa.

In addition to the pharmacologically active agent, the compositions of the present invention may contain suitable pharmaceutically acceptable carriers comprising excipients and auxiliaries that facilitate processing of the active compounds into preparations that can be used pharmaceutically for delivery to the site of action. Suitable formulations for parenteral administration include aqueous solutions of the active compounds in water-soluble form, for example, water-soluble salts. In addition, suspensions of the active compounds as appropriate oily injection suspensions may be administered. Suitable lipophilic solvents or vehicles include fatty oils, for example, sesame oil, or synthetic fatty acid esters, for example, ethyl oleate or triglycerides. Aqueous injection suspensions may contain substances which increase the viscosity of the suspension include, for example, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol, and/or dextran. Optionally, the suspension may also contain stabilizers as described above. Liposomes can also be used to encapsulate the agent for delivery into the cell.

As discussed above, the pharmaceutical formulation for systemic administration according to the invention may be formulated for enteral, parenteral or topical administration. Indeed, all three types of formulations may be used simultaneously to achieve systemic administration of the active ingredient.

Suitable formulations for oral administration include hard or soft gelatin capsules, pills, tablets, including coated tablets, elixirs, suspensions, syrups or inhalations and controlled release forms thereof. Suitable formulations for oral inhalation or nasal inhalation include aqueous solutions with or without excipients well known in the art.

Therapeutic or pharmaceutical compositions or formulations of the invention may be packaged in containers, vials, inhalation devices, etc. with instructions or labels addressing the ability of the composition or formulation to promote lower respiratory tract drainage by thinning bronchial secretions, lubricating irritated respiratory tract membranes through increased mucous flow and/or facilitating the decreased production and removal of viscous, inspissated mucus. The label or instruction may also address indications and useage such as the maintenance of symptomatic relief of various conditions as herein described, including but not limited to, moderate to severe asthma, chronic bronchitis, cystic fibrosis, upper and lower respiratory tract infections, mucin-related gastrointestinal disorders, and other conditions complicated by the persistence of viscous mucus in the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal system, or other places in the body.

The devices of the present invention may be any device adapted to introduce one or more therapeutic compositions into the upper and/or lower respiratory tract. In some preferred embodiments, the devices of the present invention may be metered-dose inhalers. The devices may be adapted to deliver the therapeutic compositions of the invention in the form of a finely dispersed mist of liquid, foam or powder. The devices may use any propellant system known to those in the art including, but not limited to, pumps, liquefied-gas, compressed gas and the like. Devices of the present invention typically comprise a container with one or more valves throw which the flow of the therapeutic composition travels and an actuator for controlling the flow. Suitable devices for use in the present invention may be seen in, for example, in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 19^(th) Edition, Chapter 95, pp. 1676-1692, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1995.

The practice of the present invention may employ the conventional terms and techniques of molecular biology, pharmacology, immunology and biochemistry that are within the ordinary skill of those in the art. For example, see Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3^(rd) Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2001.

Without further description, it is believed that one of ordinary skill in the art can, using the preceding description and the following illustrative examples, make and utilize the compounds of the present invention and practice the claimed methods. The following working examples therefore, specifically point out preferred embodiments of the present invention, and are not to be construed as limiting in any way the remainder of the disclosure.

SYNTHETIC EXAMPLES Example 1 Synthesis of Mucin Synthesis Inhibitors from Anthralic Acid or 2-Amino Nicotinic Acid

The preparation of this class of mucin synthesis inhibitors was accomplished by the following scheme:

Example 2 Synthesis of the C, O and S Analogues of Formula II Mucin Synthesis Inhibitors

The preparation of this class of mucin synthesis inhibitors was accomplished by the following general scheme. Differing primarily in the preparation of the β-keto phosphonate. For the analogues containing diaryl amine, the cyclic anhydride was prepared. Attempts to prepare the phosphonate directly from the methyl ester gave relatively poor results. The yields were variable and poor. The preparation of the phosphonate from the isatoic anhydride gave improved results. For other diarylether and thioether analogues the methyl ester yielded satisfactory results.

The general synthetic scheme for these compounds is as follows:

Example 3 Preparation of the β-Keto Phosphonate

The anion of dimethylmethyl phosphonate is prepared at −78° C. in THF. Butyl lithium is added to a solution of phosphonate with a trace of triphenylmethane added as indicator. The butyl lithium is added slowly via syringe until a faint red-pink color persists. The methyl ester or anhydride is added to the reaction dropwise via addition funnel maintaining the temperature of the reaction at −78° C. The reaction is allowed to stir at −78° C. typically until the ester of anhydride is no longer apparent by thin layer chromatography (TLC). The phosphonates are isolated by repetitive extraction into various organics. The polarity of these compounds often requires them to be salted out of the aqueous layer for satisfactory recovery. The organic layers are dried over Na₂SO₄ and the solvent is removed in vacuo. The crude product isolated in this way is in most cases of sufficient purity to be carried on without further purification.

Example 4 Preparation of α,β-Unsaturated Ketone

The phosphonate carbanion is prepared from the ketophosphonate in THF typically using NaOtBu as base. The phosphonate ester and base are premixed in THF at 0° C. to room temperature. After the base has dissolved, the reaction is allowed to stir at room temperature for approximately 5 minutes before addition of aldehyde. The reaction typically proceeds to completion within 24 hours at room temperature.

Example 5 Preparation of the Lactone and Free Acid

The lactone is prepared preferably from the 4-methoxybenzyl ester of benzoic acid 2-carboxaldehyde. The lactone is dissolved in minimal CH₂Cl₂/TFA 50/50. The solution rapidly takes on a red-purple tint as the reaction proceeds. The cleavage is complete within the first 15 minutes for most examples. The ring closure proceeds spontaneously in the reaction and workup. The workup involves pouring the reaction contents into a separatory funnel containing H₂O and the appropriate organic. The organic is washing repeatedly with water to remove the bulk of the TFA. The organic is dried over Na₂SO₄ and filtered. The solvent is removed in vacuo. The residue can usually be recrystallized from any number of solvents to isolate the lactone in satisfactory yield purity.

The free acid is produced from the benzyl ester as in Example 1. This route affords both the lactone and the free acids as a function of the relative rates of hydrogenation of the olefin as compared to hydrogenation of the benzyl ester. The reaction is typically performed in an ethanol ethyl acetate mixture at reflux. If formic acid is used as the reductant and Pd on carbon as the catalyst, the lactone is only very slowly reduced to the saturated free acid if at all. If the ammonium formate is used as the reductant under similar conditions the reaction is more vigorous and the lactone can be further reduced to the saturated free acid, but the nicotinate system should not be reduced, if present.

Example 6 Preparation of Sulfonamide Analogues

Sulfonamide analogues were prepared by chemistry analogous to that used in examples 1 and 5. The major difference is substitution of the sulfonamide for the carboxylate functionality of the 2benzoic acid carboxaldehyde. The analogous building block is prepared from saccharin via the route depicted below:

Example 7 Isolation of Talniflumate Enantiomers

The object of this investigation was to identify for the first time the stereoisomers of talniflumate (FIG. 25) by separation using normal phase chiral chromatography. A variety of commercially available columns were used and different mobile phases were tested consisting of different proportions of one or more including hexane, chloroform, and isopropanol.

Experimental

Materials and Methods

Reagents: Hexane (Burdick and Jackson, Lot BP804); Isopropanol (Burdick and Jackson, Lot BQ125); Chloroform (G.J Chemical Company, Lot 2883); talniflumate Reference Standard:Batch E001

Materials: The following Chirex columns from Phenomenex were used. The column dimensions were 50 mm×4.6 mm Part Number Phase Description OOB-3001-E0 (R)-phenylglycine and 3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid OOB-3005-EO (R)-1-napthylglycine and 3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid OOB-3010-EO (S)-valine and (R) naphthylethylamine OOB-3014-EO (S)-valine and (R)-1-napthylglycine OOB-3020-EO (S)-tert-leucine and (R)-1-napthylglycine

Mobile Phase: A variety of mobile phases were prepared using hexane, chloroform and isopropanol at various ratios.

Test Sample Preparation: A talniflumate stock solution was prepared at a concentration of 1.1 mg/ml. The dilution solvent was 1:1 mixture of hexane and chloroform. From this stock solution two different test concentrations were prepared. One at 0.11 mg/mL and the other at 0.055 mg/mL. Hewlett Packard HPLC System #2 (Software Revision: A.08.03) Variable wavelength detector Model G1414A Auto sampler Model G1313A Binary Pump Model G1312A Degasser Model G1322A Column Compartment Model G1316A

Results: The separation of talniflumate was dependent on mobile phase composition, flow rate and column type. Of the five columns tested, only the OOB-3020-EO column ((S)-Leucine and (R)-naphthylethylamine) yielded a suitable separation of the (+) and (−) enantiomers of talniflumate. A sample chromatogram is shown in FIG. 24. The mobile phase consisted of hexane:chloroform:isopropanol (37.5:37.5:24). The flow rate was 0.2 mL/min. Detection was at 287 nM. Injection volume was 5 microliters. The concentration of talniflumate was 0.055 mg/mL. The corresponding peak areas and peak heights for both peaks were of equal intensity consistent with the injected talniflumate being a racemic mixture. Other columns and conditions were tested, including various mobile phase conditions and a single chromatographic peak was observed for talniflumate in each case.

Conclusion: We have successfully isolated the individual enantiomers of talniflumate.

BIOLOGICAL EXAMPLES Example 1 NFA Inhibits Mucin Production by Caco2 Cells Activated to Over-Produce Mucin

Activated Caco2 cells that express the mRNA of MUC1, MUC2, MUC3, MUC4, MUC5B and MUC5AC have been produced and used to test for inhibitors of mucin production. These cells can be stained for mucin using Periodic Acid-Schiff staining (PAS). As shown in FIG. 1, although Caco2 control cells displayed a basal PAS staining with a few small glycoconjugates vesicles scattered about (panel A), activation of the Caco2 cells dramatically increased the number and intensity of PAS positive mucin glycoconjugates (panel B). The activated Caco2 cells were cultured in the presence of niflumic acid (NFA) or 4,4′-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2′-disulfonic acid (DIDS). At the indicated concentrations (100 μm for NFA and 300 μm for DIDS), PAS staining of inhibitor treated activated Caco2 cells revealed significantly fewer positive staining mucin glycoconjugates as compared with the untreated cells (FIG. 1D compared to 1B). In addition, the slight staining seen in control cells was also inhibited (FIG. 1C compared to 1A). Mucin production by activated Caco2 cells could also be inhibited by other fenamates such as Flufenamate (FFA), Tolfenamate (TFLA) and partially by Mefenamate (MFA) and Meclofenamate (MLFA) (FIG. 2). Related compounds Naproxen (MMNA) and Sulindac were ineffective. This reduced mucin production in NFA treated cells was not due to dramatic changes of the physiological condition of the cells, since their viability was not affected by even higher concentrations of NFA (FIG. 3). Taken in total, the results are consistent with these drugs inhibiting epithelial activation. Moreover, the results clearly demonstrate a direct effect of NFA and its analogues (Phenyl anthranilic acid derivatives shown in FIG. 11), DIDS, and SIDS on mucus over-production, which is a hallmark of multiple chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders.

Example 2 NFA Inhibits Eotaxin Production by Caco2 Cells Activated to Over-Produce Mucin

Activated LHL4 cells that express and secrete eotaxin have been produced and used to test for inhibitors of eotaxin production. These cells were assayed in vitro for eotaxin by an ELISA technique well known in the art (R&D Systems). As shown in FIG. 4, activated LHL4 cells were cultured in the absence (control) or presence of increasing concentrations of niflumic acid (NFA). Significant inhibition of eotaxin production was noted with increasing concentrations of NFA. Similar inhibition was seen with DIDS and SIDS in an identical experiment. Mad/C3 cells show similar inhibition of eotaxin production by NFA, DIDS, and SIDS. Taken together, these results clearly demonstrate a direct effect of NFA on eotaxin production.

Example 3 Inhibition of Mucin Over-Production in Murine Models of Asthma by NFA

Certified virus-free male and female mice of the following strains, DBA, C57B6 and B6D2F1 were purchased from the National Cancer Institute or Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor Me.). IL-9 transgenic mice (Tg5) and their parent strain (FVB), were obtained from the Ludwig Institute (Brussels, Belgium). Animals were housed in a high-efficiency, particulate filtered air facility and allowed free access to food and water for 3 to 7 days prior to experimental manipulation. The animal facilities were maintained at 22° C. and the light:dark cycle was automatically controlled (10:14 hour light:dark).

Phenotyping and Efficacy of Pretreatment.

Animals either received no pretreatment or were sensitized by nasal aspiration of Aspergillus fumigatus antigen to assess the effect of pretreatment on bronchial hyperresponsiveness, composition of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, mucin production and serum IgE. Mice were challenged with Aspergillus or saline intranasally (on days 0, 7, 14, 21 and 22) and phenotyped 24 hours after the last dose. Sensitized mice were treated on days 0-21 with either PBS or 100 μg of NFA by intra-tracheal instillation (IT). The inhibition of mucus production and mucin expression in the lung was used to assess the treatment effect of NFA, or could be used to assess the treatment effects of other drug candidates. To determine the bronchoconstrictor response, respiratory system pressure was measured at the trachea and recorded before and during exposure to the drug. Mice were anesthetized and instrumented as previously described. (Levitt et al., 1988; Levitt and Mitzner, 1989; Kleeberger et al., 1990; Levitt, 1991; Levitt and Ewart, 1995; Ewart et al., 1995). Airway responsiveness is measured to one or more of the following: 5-hydroxytryptamine, acetylcholine, atracurium or a substance-P analog. A simple and repeatable measure of the change in peak inspiratory pressure following bronchoconstrictor challenge was used which has been termed the Airway Pressure Time Index (APTI) (Levitt et al., 1988; Levitt and Mitzner, 1989). The APTI was assessed by the change in peak respiratory pressure integrated from the time of injection until the peak pressure returns to baseline or plateau. The APTI was comparable to airway resistance, however, the APTI includes an additional component related to the recovery from bronchoconstriction.

Prior to sacrifice, whole blood was collected for serum IgE measurements by needle puncture of the inferior vena cava in anesthetized animals. Samples were centrifuged to separate cells and serum was collected and used to measure total IgE levels. Samples not measured immediately were frozen at −20° C.

All IgE serum samples were measured using an ELISA antibody-sandwich assay. Microtiter plates were coated, 50 μl per well, with rat anti-murine IgE antibody (Southern Biotechnology) at a concentration of 2.5 μg/ml in a coating buffer of sodium carbonate-sodium bicarbonate with sodium azide. Plates were covered with plastic wrap and incubated at 4° C. for 16 hours. The plates were washed three times with a wash buffer of 0.05% Tween-20 in phosphate-buffered saline, incubating for five minutes for each wash. Blocking of nonspecific binding sites was accomplished by adding 200 μl per well 5% bovine serum albumin in phosphate-buffered saline, covering with plastic wrap and incubating for 2 hours at 37° C. After washing three times with wash buffer, duplicate 50 μl test samples were added to each well. Test samples were assayed after being diluted 1:10, 1:50 and 1:100 with 5% bovine serum albumin in wash buffer. In addition to the test samples, a set of IgE standards (PharMingen) at concentrations from 0.8 ng/ml to 200 ng/ml in 5% bovine serum albumin in wash buffer, were assayed to generate a standard curve. A blank of no sample or standard was used to zero the plate reader (background). After adding samples and standards, the plate was covered with plastic wrap and incubated for 2 hours at room temperature. After washing three times with wash buffer, 50 μl of secondary antibody rat anti-murine IgE-horseradish peroxidase conjugate was added at a concentration of 250 ng/ml in 5% bovine serum albumin in wash buffer. The plate was covered with plastic wrap and incubated 2 hours at room temperature. After washing three times with wash buffer, 100 μl of the substrate 0.5 mg/ml o-phenylenediamine in 0.1 M citrate buffer was added to every well. After 5-10 minutes the reaction was stopped with 50 μl of 12.5% sulfuric acid and absorbance was measured at 490 nm on a MR5000 plate reader (Dynatech). A standard curve was constructed from the standard IgE concentrations with antigen concentration on the x axis (log scale) and absorbance on the y axis (linear scale). The concentration of IgE in the samples was interpolated from the standard curve.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and cellular analysis were preformed as previously described (Kleeberger et al., 1990). Lung histology was carried out after either the lungs were filled with fixative in situ and place in formalin, or extracted and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen. Since prior instrumentation may introduce artifact, separate animals were used for these studies. Thus, a small group of animals was treated in parallel exactly the same as the cohort undergoing various pre-treatments except these animals were not used for other tests aside from bronchial responsiveness testing. After bronchial responsiveness testing, lungs were removed and submersed in liquid nitrogen as above. Cryosectioning, staining, and histologic examination was carried out in a manner obvious to those skilled in the art.

NFA, which blocks epithelial cell activation and down-regulates mucin and eotaxin production in vitro, was used therapeutically to assess the importance of epithelial cell activation in vivo on antigen-induced mucin production, bronchial responsiveness, serum IgE, and airway inflammation as assessed by BAL in mice. The effects of NFA treatment, on airway responsiveness, BAL, mucus production, and serum IgE levels relative to vehicle treated matched controls were determined. FIGS. 5 and 6 show that NFA is able to suppress airway hyperresponsiveness and BAL lung eosinophilia respectively, however, there was no effect on serum IgE levels. In addition NFA could also suppress the over-production of mucus in the lung caused by exposure to antigen (FIG. 7).

Example 4 Epithelial Activation by IL9 in a Transgenic Mouse Produces Mucus Over-Production and Mucin Gene Up-Regulation: A Model for Drug Screening

Certified virus-free male and female IL9 transgenic mice (IL9TG5-FVB/N) 5-6 weeks of age were bred in our laboratories. Male and female FVB/N mice 5-6 weeks of age were purchased from Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor Me.). Animals were housed in high-efficiency, particulate filtered air and allowed free access to food and water for 3 to 7 days prior to experimental manipulation. The animal facilities were maintained at 22° C. and the light:dark cycle was automatically controlled (10:14 hour light:dark).

Phenotyping and Efficacy of Treatment.

Animals were phenotyped, naïve, or 24 hrs after receiving intra-tracheal (IT) shame (vehicle) treatment, or drugs in the same vehicle as was used in identically treated controls. Mice were treated IT once daily for three days. NFA (100 μg) or antibody to IL-9 were administered in PBS IT. Treatment responses were measured by the assessment of mucin inhibition by histologic exam (PAS staining of greater than 10 sections through the treated and control lungs or western blots of MUC 1, MUC2 and MUC3 expression from the same lungs.

FIG. 8 shows that IL-9 transgenic mice constitutively overproduce mucin as compared to control FVB mice. A decrease from the high levels of constitutive mucin production that occurs in the asthmatic IL9 transgenic (FIG. 8) (naïve and vehicle control) to levels comparable to the much lower baseline mucin production found in the FVB/N lungs (normal positive control) was considered significant for any drug. The up-regulation of mucus production in the IL9 transgenic is specifically associated with increased steady-state mRNA levels of MUC2 and MUC5AC as shown by RT-PCR (FIG. 9).

Neutralizing IL-9 antibody was shown to produce a significant decrease in mucin production in the IL9 transgenic lungs (FIG. 10). NFA also decreased mucin production in this model.

Example 5 Inhibition of Mucin Over-Production in Murine Models of Asthma by Talniflumate

Certified virus-free male B6D2 μl mice 5-6 weeks of age were purchased from Jackson Laboratories (Bar Harbor Me.). Animals were housed in high-efficiency, particulate filtered air and allowed free access to food and water 5 to 7 days prior to experimental manipulation. The animal facilities were maintained at 22° C. and the light:dark cycle was automatically controlled (12:12 hour light:dark).

Phenotyping and Efficacy of Treatment

Animals were fed ad lib either talniflumate containing mouse chow or regular mouse chow. Animals either received no sensitization or were sensitized by nasal aspiration of Aspergillus fumigatus antigen to assess the effect of pretreatment on bronchial hyperresponsiveness, composition of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, mucin production and serum IgE. Mice were challenged with Aspergillus intranasally (on days 0, 7, 16 and 17) and phenotyped 24 hours after the last dose. The inhibition of mucus production in the lung was used to assess the treatment effect of talniflumate, or could be used to assess the treatment effects of other drug candidates. To determine the bronchoconstrictor response, respiratory system pressure was measured at the trachea and recorded before and during exposure to the drug. Mice were anesthetized and instrumented as previously described. (Levitt et al., 1988; Levitt and Mitzner, 1989; Kleeberger et al., 1990; Levitt, 1991; Levitt and Ewart, 1995; Ewart et al., 1995).

Airway responsiveness is measured to one or more of the following: 5-hydroxytryptamine, acetylcholine, atracurium or a substance-P analog. A simple and repeatable measure of the change in peak inspiratory pressure following bronchoconstrictor challenge was used which has been termed the Airway Pressure Time Index (APTI) (Levitt et al., 1988; Levitt and Mitzner, 1989). The APTI was assessed by the change in peak respiratory pressure integrated from the time of injection until the peak pressure returns to baseline or plateau. The APTI was comparable to airway resistance, however, the APTI includes an additional component related to the recovery from bronchoconstriction. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and cellular analysis were preformed as previously described (Kleeberger et al., 1990). Lung histology was carried out after the lungs were harvested and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen. After bronchial responsiveness testing, lungs were removed and submersed in liquid nitrogen as above. Cryosectioning, staining, and histologic examination was carried out in a manner obvious to those skilled in the art. Treatment responses were measured by the assessment of mucin inhibition by histologic exam (PAS staining of the treated and control lungs).

Oral treatment with talniflumate reduced mucin staining. FIG. 15A shows the PAS staining in mouse lung obtained from Asp-sens mice that were fed regular mouse chow. FIG. 15B shows the results obtained from Asp-sens mice fed talniflumate containing chow. FIG. 16 shows the results of feeding talniflumate coated mouse chow on lung eosinophilia determined by bronchoalveolar lavage. Talniflumate reduced the number of eosinophilic cells obtained from mice sensitized to Aspergillus fumigatus as compared to sensitized mice fed standard mouse chow.

Example 6 Overexpression of CLCA1 in Epithelium Cell Lines Enhances Mucin Production

NCI-H292 cells, a human pulmonary mucoepidermoid carcinoma cell line, were purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas Va.) and cultured in RPMI1640 medium supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (Gibco/BRL). The cells were grown in a humidified, air-containing incubator, supplemented with 5% CO₂ at 37° C. Stable NCI-H292 cell lines over-expressing hCLCA1 were established by transfection of pcDNA3-hCLCA1 using a Fujin Transfection kit according to the manufacture's instruction (Boehringer-Mannheim). A control cell line was produced, NCI-H292/ctl, by the transfection of pcDNA3 (ctl) into the NCI-H292 cell line using the same procedure. Expression of the hCLCA1 gene was confirmed for the pcDNA3-hCLCA1 transfectent by Northern analysis.

For s-ELLA (specific enzyme linked lectin assay), cells were plated in 24-well tissue culture plates and incubated for 72 hours to confluence. Supernatants were transferred into 96-well plates pre-coated with 1 μg/ml anti-MUC5A/C antibody (New marker, Fremont Calif.) and blocked with 1% BSA. Antibody bound MUC5A/C was then detected with HRP-lectin (Sigma).

For RT-PCR total RNA was isolated from cell lines using Trizol reagent (Gibco/BRL) following the manufacturer's protocol. RT-PCR was performed by reverse transcribing 1 μg of total RNA and amplifying cDNA with the appropriate primers by PCR. Products were separated by electrophoreses on 2% agarose gels and visualized by ethidium bromide staining. Primer pairs used to generate human CLCA1 message were: sense 5′-GGCACAGATCTTTTCATTGCTA-3′ and antisense 5′-GTGAATGCCAGGAATGGTGCT-3′ which produce a 182 bp product. Primer pairs used to generate mucin messages are listed in Table 1. TABLE 1 (Numbers in parentheses refer to oligonucleotide position contained within the published cDNA). Gene Sense primer Reverse primer Accession #) (5′- 3′) (5′- 3′) HMUC1 GCCAGTAGCACTCACCATAGC CTGACAGACAGCCAAG (J05582) TCG GCAATGAG (3113-3136) (3627-3605) HMUC5AC GTGGAACCACGATGACAGC TCAGCACATAGCTGCA (AF015521) (610-629) GTCG (1428-1408) GGACGAGAAGTATAACTTCG CATCTCGCTTGTGTTA HPMS2 AG AGAGC (U13696) (2133-2154) (2505-2485)

NCI-H292 cells express MUC1 constitutively, whereas MUC2 and MUC5A/C mRNA expression are below detection levels at baseline. FIG. 12A shows the results of a Northern blot analysis of pcDNA3-hCLCA1 transfected cells showing an increased expression level for ICACC mRNA. Western blot analysis of whole cell lysate from CLCA1 over-expressing clones revealed enhanced MUC2 protein production (FIG. 12B). MUC5A/C expression was significantly increased in CLCA1 over-expressing cells, while MUC1 was unchanged in RT-PCR analyses (FIG. 12C). Specific ELLA analysis also revealed the over-production of MUC5A/C protein in CLCA1 expressing clones compared with the untransfected NCI-H292 cells or cells transfected with empty vector (FIG. 12D).

Example 7 Inhibition of Mucus Over-Production and MUC 5A/C Expression in NCI-H292 Cells Over-Expressing hCLCA1

For the determination of mucous glycoconjugate production, NCI-H292/ctl and NCI-H292/hCLCA1 (AAF 15) cells were cultured in 24-well plates for 3 days. Cells were then fixed with Formalin and mucous glycoconjugates were visualized by AB/PAS staining (Sigma). Although NCI-H292 control cells displayed a basal PAS staining with a few scattered granules (FIG. 13A), over-expression of CLCA1 dramatically increased the number and intensity of PAS positive muco-glycoconjugates (FIG. 13B). For chloride channel blockage studies, cells were cultured in the presence of niflumic acid (NFA) (Sigma) at 100 μM concentration, mefanamic acid (MFA) at 125 or 250 μM or talniflumate at 12.5, 25 or 50 μM, or media alone. PAS staining of cells treated with NFA, MFA or talniflumate revealed significantly fewer positive staining muco-glycoconjugates compared with untreated cells (FIGS. 13C & D and insert of FIG. 14). PAS staining of inhibitor treated control cells showed virtually no difference from untreated cells (FIGS. 13A & C).

The IC₅₀ values for talniflumate (FIG. 14), Nimesulide (FIG. 17) and MSI-2079 (FIG. 18, the structure of MSI-2079 is shown in FIG. 19) were determined on the basis of its inhibition of MUC5A/C secretion in hCLCA1 expressing H292 cells. Confluent cells were treated with the inhibitor at concentrations from 0 through 250 μM in OPTI MEM. Secreted MUC5A/C was detected forty-eight hours after addition of the inhibitor by an ELLA assay as described in Example 5. The IC50 values were determined with the data analyzing software GraphPad Prism. The insert of FIG. 14 shows the intracellular mucin levels in response to talniflumate treatment detected by PAS staining.

Example 8 Effects of Talniflumate and Analogs in CF Assays

CF mice (both CF knock-out mice and CF AF508 mice), which do not express a functioning CFTR protein, were weaned and administered an osmotic agent to allow survival. Within two weeks of weaning, the osmotic agent treatment was discontinued and the mice were either placed on talniflumate containing chow or control chow. The CF mice consuming control chow lost 10-15% body weight and died (CF knock-out) or were euthanized (CF AF508) due to the animal's moribund state within 7 days post-osmotic agent. In contrast, the CF mice that consumed talniflumate (approximate dose of 100 mg/kg per os) gained 8-12% body weight and survived at least 26 days, at which time they were sacrificed to evaluate histopathology (see FIG. 20).

The effects of talniflumate derivatives on mucin production were also assayed for changes in ELLA and IC₅₀ (Table 2) as described in the methods above. TABLE 2 Inhibition of Muc5b Compound ELLA IC₅₀ (μM) Expression 1 (MSI 2213) − NA NA 2 (MSI 2215) + 7.5 NA 3 (MSI 2214) − NA + 4 (MSI 2216) + 5.0 + 5 (MSI 2217) + 20   + Key: (+) = inhibition (−) = no inhibition

The desired analogues of talniflumate (see FIG. 21) were synthesized via the reaction scheme depicted below. The anion of dimethyl methylphosphonate was generated by adding butyl lithium to the phosphonate at −78° C. in tetrahydrofuran. Niflumic acid methyl ester (1, MSI 2213) was added to this solution of phosphonate carbanion to generate the β-keto phosphonate (2, MSI 2215). In the next reaction step the phosphonate carbanion of (2, MSI 2215) is generated by the addition of base, sodium tertbutoxide, to a solution of (2, MSI 2215) in tetrahydrofuran. The benzyl ester of benzoic acid 2-carboxaldehyde was added to the reaction vessel containing the phosphonate carbanion to generate the α,β unsaturated ketone (3, MSI 2214). Exchange hydrogenation of (3, MSI 2214) using formic acid and Pd on C catalyst gave two products the major product being the desired lactone (4, MSI 2216), as well as lesser amounts of the reduced product (5, MSI 2217).

Example 9 Effects of Talniflumate in a COPD Assay

MUC2 transcription was monitored as described in Li et al. (1998) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, Vol. 95, pp. 5718-5723. Briefly, an epithelial cell line was transfected with a reporter construct containing the promoter region from the MUC2 gene cloned upstream of a luciferase reporter gene. Transfected cells were treated with serum free media (SFM) alone or, as indicated, containing lipoteichoic acid from S. aureus bacteria (LTA), adenosine (aden), or talniflumate (MSI). Cells were then lysed and luciferase enzyme activity in the lysates was measured (RLU). Talniflumate modulated the lipoteichoic acid induction of MUC2 (see FIG. 22). This is also an appropriate model for CF.

Example 10 Effects of Talniflumate on Chloride Channel Activity

FIG. 23 shows the results of a patch clamp experiment on cells transfected with a plasmid expressing a chloride channel. An NCI-H292 cell transfected with a plasmid expressing the human chloride channel hCLCA1 was patch clamped and chloride current (I) was measured over a range of voltages (V). Substantial chloride current was invoked by the addition of 2 μM ionomycin and 2 mM calcium (circles) compared to baseline (squares), indicating activation of hCLCA1. Addition of 5 micromolar talniflumate (triangles) produced a reduction in chloride current at positive voltage, indicating an inhibition of channel activity.

In contrast to the results observed with talniflumate, diclofenac did not inhibit chloride channel activity. A HEK293 cell transfected with a plasmid expressing a murine chloride channel, mCLCA1, was patch clamped and chloride current was measured over a range of voltages (V, left column) and the results are shown in Table 3 below. Each row lists currents invoked at a particular positive voltage in the absence (−) or presence (+) of ionomycin and calcium, and in the presence of an indicated concentration of diclofenac (μM). Substantial current was invoked by the addition of 2 μM ionomycin and 2 mM calcium-compare the first two columns-indicating activation of mCLCA1 by the ionomycin/calcium treatment. For example, at 100 mV of positive voltage, the chloride current was increased from 39 nA/pF to 105 nA/pF. No inhibition of channel activity by diclofenac was observed with concentrations of diclofenac ranging from 5 μM to 50 μM. At 100 mV of positive voltage 5 μM diclofenac resulted in a current of 115 nApF, 20 μM diclofenac 109 nA/pF and 50 μM 106 nA/pF compared to the 105 nA/pF observed in the absence of diclofenac. TABLE 3 Effects of diclofenac on chloride channel activity Chloride Current (nA/pF) − + + + + :ionomycin + Ca V(mV) 0 0 5 20 50 :diclofenac (μM) 0 11 16 20 20 19 20 14 30 36 34 33 40 18 43 53 51 48 60 24 63 72 69 66 80 32 85 92 88 85 100 39 105 115 109 106

Example 11 IC₅₀ and LD₅₀ of Talniflumate, Compound 2216 and Compounds 1-15

ELLA (Enzyme-Linked Lectin Assay) was used to determine the inhibitory effect of compounds on mucus production by H292 clone 15 cells. H292 clone 15 cells, a subclone from human pulmonary mucoepidermoid carcinoma cells overexpressing hCLCA1, were grown to confluent, followed by incubation with increasing concentrations of compounds for 48 hours. Conditioned media were collected and MUC5AC (the major secretory mucin in lungs) content was determined by ELLA measurement as described below. 96 well microtiter plates were coated with a mouse monoclonal antibody against human MUC5AC (1-13M1, NeoMarkers), then incubated with test conditioned media. Bound MUC5AC was detected by horseradish peroxidase-conjugated soybean lectin that has a high affinity towards highly-glycosylated proteins such as MUC5AC. Conversion of peroxidase substrate TMB (Tetramethylbenzidine Base) was quantified by reading at 450 nm. O.D. (optical density) readings were plotted against concentrations of compounds. Linear regression was used to derive the concentration at which O.D. was reduced by 50% (IC50) when compared to vehicle-treated cells.

To determine cytotoxicity of compounds, a vital dye, Alamar Blue, which can be reduced by the respiratory enzymes such as NAPDH, FADH and cytochromes in living cells, was added to compound-treated cells (see above) at a final concentration of 1% for 2 hours. Reduction of oxidized Alamar Blue resulted in fluorescence emission which cab be measured at 530 nm (excitation wavelength) and 590 nm (emission wavelength). LD50 is defined as the concentration at which fluorescence reading was reduced by 50% when compared to vehicle-treated cells. An ideal compound should have a low IC50 and a high LD50.

To determine the inhibitory effect of compounds on intracellular (stored) mucins, compound-treated cells were stained with Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stain, which stains for glycoproteins. Since mucins are the major glycoproteins in respiratory cells, this stain gives an indirect qualitative assessment of intracellular mucins IC50 (μM) Est. LD50 (μM) Compound (ELLA)* (Alamar Blue)* PAS Talniflumate 33 108 + MSI 2216 3 32 +  1 2 11 +  2 4 16 +  3 1.2 19 +  4 1.6 27 +  5 4 35 +  6 3 27 +  7 24 69 +  8 10 30 +  9 5 43 + 10 44 885 + 11 2 23 + 12 1.9 22 + 13 1 10 + 14 2.3 16 + 15 2.5 15 + *Average of 3 experiments

Example 12 Effect of Talniflumate Enantiomers on Mucus Over-Production and MUC 5A/C Expression by NCI-H292/hCLCA1 Cells

For the determination of mucous glycoconjugate production, NCI-H292/hCLCA1 cells were cultured in 24-well plates for 3 days with at concentrations of 0 to 150 μM of the talniflumate enantiomers or media alone (control). Cells were then fixed with Formalin and mucous glycoconjugates were visualized by AB/PAS staining (Sigma). PAS staining of cells treated with talniflumate enantiomers was observed for muco-glycoconjugates compared with untreated cells. In this assay both enantiomers were seen to inhibit muco-glycoconjugate production at concentrations>40 μM.

IC₅₀ values for talniflumate enantiomers was determined on the basis of their inhibition of MUC5A/C secretion in NCI-H292/hCLCA1 cells and compared to the values for the talniflumate racemate. Confluent cells were treated with the inhibitors at concentrations from 0 through 150 μM in OPTI MEM. Secreted MUC5A/C was detected forty-eight hours after addition of the inhibitor by an ELLA assay as described in Example 5. The IC50 values were determined with the data analyzing software GraphPad Prism. As seen in FIG. 26, enantiomer 1 was not inhibitory while enantiomer 2 had an IC₅₀ value of 40 μM compared to an IC₅₀ of 36 μM for the racemate. Enantiomer 1 is defined to be the first enantiomer eluting from the HPLC column in the separation of the racemic mixture and enantiomer 2 is the later eluting compound as described in Synthesis Example 7.

To determine cytotoxicity of each enantiomer or mixture of these isomers, a vital dye, Alamar Blue, which can be reduced by the respiratory enzymes such as NAPDH, FADH and cytochromes in living cells, was added to compound-treated cells (see above) at a final concentration of 1% for 2 hours. Reduction of oxidized Alamar Blue results in fluorescence emission that can be measured at 530 nm (excitation wavelength) and 590 nm (emission wavelength). LD50 is defined as the concentration at which fluorescence reading was reduced by 50% when compared to vehicle-treated cells. No LD₅₀ values could be calculated for concentrations up to 150 μM for either enantiomer or the racemate since the fluorescence reading was not reduced by 50% (FIG. 27).

Example 13 Effects of Talniflumate Enantiomers and Analogs in CF Assays

CF mice (both CF knock-out mice and CF AF508 mice), which do not express a functioning CFTR protein, are weaned and administered an osmotic agent to allow survival. Within two weeks of weaning, the osmotic agent treatment is discontinued and the mice are either placed on chow containing substantially pure (+) or (−) talniflumate, a mixture of the enantiomers, or control chow. The CF mice consuming control chow are monitored for body weight and euthanized when body weight drops 10% or greater. CF mice consuming the talniflumate isomers are also monitored for body weight and survival. After 28 days, at animals are sacrificed to evaluate histopathology.

While the invention has been described and illustrated herein by references to various specific materials, procedures and examples, it is understood that the invention is not restricted to the particular combinations of material and procedures selected for that purpose. Numerous variations of such details can be implied as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art. All patents, patent applications and other references cited throughout this application are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

REFERENCES

The following references are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety, as are all references, patents or patent applications referred to in this application:

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1. A compound selected from the group consisting of the enantiomerically pure or optically enriched (+)-talniflumate and (−)-talniflumate, prodrugs thereof and pharmaceutically acceptable salts of said compounds and prodrugs.
 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is (+)-talniflumate.
 3. The compound of claim 1, wherein said compound is (−)-talniflumate.
 4. A method of treating a subject with a disease state associated with the synthesis or secretion of mucin, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to claim
 1. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the mucin production is chloride channel dependent.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the chloride channel is a CLCA chloride channel.
 7. The method of claim 4, wherein the composition is administered by inhalation.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the composition is in the form of a liquid.
 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the composition is in the form of a powder.
 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the liquid is aerosolized.
 11. The method of claim 4, wherein the composition further comprises at least one additional therapeutic agent.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the at least one additional therapeutic agent is selected from the group consisting of an expectorant, mucolytic agent, antibiotic and decongestant agent.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the expectorant is guaifenesin.
 14. The method of claim 4, wherein the composition further comprises at least one excipient selected from the group consisting of a surfactant, stabilizing agent, absorption-enhancing agent, flavoring agent and pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the stabilizing agent is cyclodextran.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the absorption-enhancing agent is chitosan.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the disease state is selected from the group consisting of a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), an inflammatory lung disease, cystic fibrosis and an infectious disease.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the COPD is selected from the group consisting of emphysema, chronic bronchitis and asthma.
 19. A pharmaceutical composition formulated for inhalation delivery to the lungs, comprising a compound of claim 1, salts thereof, derivates thereof and prodrugs thereof in an amount effective to decrease mucin synthesis or secretion.
 20. The composition of claim 19, wherein the composition comprises (+)-talniflumate, a (+)-talniflumate derivative, a salt thereof or a prodrug thereof.
 21. The composition of claim 19, wherein the composition comprises (−)-talniflumate, a (−)-talniflumate derivative, a salt thereof or a prodrug thereof.
 22. The composition of claim 19, wherein the composition further comprises at least one expectorant, mucolytic agent, antibiotic or decongestant agent.
 23. An inhalation device comprising the pharmaceutical composition of claim
 19. 24. The method of claim 4, wherein the composition is formulated to increase bioavailability.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the composition is micronized.
 26. A method of treating a subject with chronic sinusitis, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of claim 1 